FROM PASTURIZATION OF THARUHAT TO THE
PAUPERIZATION OF THE THARUS
(Case of Tharus of West Champaran)
DR. AJAY
KUMAR (OJHA)
The article is on a tribe
which is found in the Tarai region
of Indo-Nepal border. This tribe has been totally neglected but mostly
exploited whether they reside in India or Nepal. They have been looked down
upon, grossly misunderstood and crowned with the title such as ‘Bagad’,
‘Junglee’ i.e fool and uncivilized. They have been living in utmost
inhospitable condition in the densely forested region where ray of development
is also scared to dawn.
After Independence of India the same tribe living in Uttar
Pradesh was included in the VIIIth Schedule of constitution thus enjoying the
benefits of Scheduled Tribe while their brethren in Champaran district of Bihar
remained unscheduled and fell prey to the outsiders. This tribe, of now West
Champaran district, has become the major tribe of Bihar after carving out of
Jharkhand. After continuous peaceful struggle this tribe became Scheduled Tribe in
2003. But damage done to them for decades can never be undone or compensated.
This article zooms in on the tribe which is known as Tharu who live in
West Champaran. The purpose is to highlight the social organization and culture
along with pattern of social change taking place amongst the till now little
known, perhaps unknown and unhighlighted tribe of Bihar. Hardly do we find any
detail, in-depth study and research work on this tribe. Before the wind of
change should blow away their rich and unique social organization and culture
they need to be properly documented. “Documentation of various facets of tribal
society is very much essential before they are totally eclipsed by the
rapid process of globalization.” (Pfeffer & Behra: 2002) They are required
to be intensely and extensively researched, their pattern of change minutely
analyzed not with ethnocentric but cultural relativist approach.
It can be convincingly
and forcefully said that the Tharus of West Champaran are not ‘Bagad’ or fool
devoid of any culture of their own. They are till today very simple, innocent
and hospitable community. And also they are not uncultured or uncivilized but
they have their own unique and matchless culture with peculiar kind of tenacity
and vitality not to be found among other tribes. Now it can also be said with firm conviction
that they are the original inhabitants of the Tarai and living there since time
immemorial. The Tharus, especially their women are believed to be notorious for
their sorcery and witchcraft, this belief too does not find any base or support
in the society and it appears to be the figment of imagination of the
neighbouring people to humiliate them.
In spite of the comparative isolation and seclusion in
which the Tharus of West Champaran have been living due to their peculiar
contact situation, they have not escaped infiltration from outside and have
come in contact with heterogeneous peoples. People from across the border i.e
Nepal and from plains have been visiting the Tharuhat (the area
inhabited by the Tharus in West Champaran)
in different roles of traders, moneylenders, merchants, contractors,
administrative officials and exerted their influence considerably. The
influence of commercial contacts through bi-weekly markets and fairs is also
considerably felt among the Tharus as it helps in facilitating the transmission
of new ideas along with import of new goods and articles.
Election of Member of Parliament (MP) or that of Member of Legislative Assembly
(MLA) through democratic process or
introduction of Panchayati Raj has made them politically active, aware and
conscious of their origin and rights. As
a result of these contacts we can observe perceptible change in the structure
of the Tharu society, in its institutions or in the rules by which these
institutions are governed, and also change in ideas, values and beliefs.
Child
marriage and pre-puberty marriage are quite common among the Tharus of West
Champaran. But now the younger generation is going through a transitional phase
and they are marrying later than what was
existent earlier. A slow but certain trend is perceptible. The number of
males marrying below fourteen years of age is gradually on decrease. A similar
trend is visible in the case of marriage of females also. However, the age at
marriage among females, normally does not cross nineteen years. Rarely does it
break the barrier of twenty but not all above twenty five years of age. But
even today child marriage and infant marriage especially among the females are
very much prevalent.
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| Image (C) Dr Ajay Kumar (Ojha) |
It is
remarkable that marriage negotiations among the Tharus are normally initiated
from the side of the bridegroom. There is tradition called Kaniauti also. As per this custom groomside
gives some money to the brideside,
amount to be decided by mutual consent of both the parties either in cash or in
kind. If Kaniauti is accepted, it means
that the girl is released from her father. If brideside is not inclined to
accept the Kaniauti, it is not
binding upon the groomeside to offer. But if asked by brideside, there can be
no denial. The tradition of Kaniauti has
been abolished by the Tharus of West Champaran in the new marriage regulation.
Earlier there was no
limit on the number of persons from brideside, visiting groom’s house for Sagun
or Barpujai. Since the formation of
the Tharu Sangh, number of
persons visiting the groomside has been restricted to only five. This has been
done to save the family of groom from unnecessary harassment and embarrassment,
and also from useless and unwanted expenses.
The tradition of Pathawan
was also very burdensome and hence, in the marriage regulation of Tharu Sangh, it has now been abolished. A small but sensible change was
brought about in the sense that only the groom will go to the village of bride
along with two- three of his friends and take the bride along with him to his
village. Unfortunately this tradition is still in vogue among the Tharus of
West Champaran. But the trend has set in and some conscious and progressive
among them have begun disowning this tradition.
Dowry system is
almost non-existent in the Tharu society of West Champaran. This evil of adjoining Hindu society is
slowly making dent into the Tharu society. This trend appears to be disturbing
for thepeople who are trying to
eradicate such social evils. Demand of educated and well-placed grooms is
increasing and thereby stray cases related to dowry are being reported in the
some villages of the Tharuhat. Earlier the family of groom used to go to see
girl but now the situation is changing diametrically opposed to the previous one.
Family of bride is going in for search of the groom. Like in the society of the
Bajis, it has become difficult and troublesome for the father of a girl to get
the marriage of his daughter fixed.
Polygamy
is permitted but only in the form of polygyny and not polyandry.
There appears to be no definite rule limiting the number of wives a man may
have. Earlier there were many cases of polygynous marriages, but now
surprisingly, most of the Tharus prefer monogamous marriage. Thanks may be due
to resource constraints. Only few cases of polygynous marriages are reported in
the area.
Traditionally, marriage is solemnized in the same
sub-caste, meaning thereby there cannot be marriage between persons of two
different sub-castes. If a girl of one sub-caste elopes with a boy of another
sub-caste, a fine is imposed to discourage any such effort. This is a matter of
great concern in the Tharu society because it leads to unnecessary tension
among different sub-castes of the Tharus of West Champaran. Bharatiya Tharu Kalyan
Mahasangh, established
with the prime objective of social, economic, moral , cultural and
spiritual development of the Tharu society, introduced an important rule in
this regard. According to the new rule there will be all kinds of interaction at all
levels and marriage will be allowed
among different sub-castes. This
was a historical and path- breaking development and will have a far-reaching
impact on the interaction among
different sub-castes, paving the way for a new phase in the life of the Tharus
of West Champaran. The introduction of the new rule has undoubtedly and
indubitably brought about remarkable change in the Tharu society. The spectrum
of marriage has now widened, choice of grooms and brides has tremendously
increased and tension, to a great extent has been brought under control thus
leading to harmony, cohesiveness and spirit of unity in the Tharu samaj, and
consciousness of pan –Tharu identity.
In the
social organization of the Tharus the family and not individual is regarded as
the primary unit. The Tharu had families of very big size. There were several
Joint families having more than one hundred members and all the members of the
family were leading a very peaceful, comfortable and satisfactory life. Now it
is evident that size of the family is on decrease substantially and also
Nuclear families are predominant in the Tharu society. According to the trend
it is most likely that most of the Transitional type of families would be
transformed into Nuclear instead of Joint type. Majority of the Tharus
expressed their firm opinion against break-up and they accepted the sad but
inevitable story of disintegration of the Joint family. The prestige of the
head in the family is also demonstrating a downward trend. Population growth,
resource constraint, individualistic attitudes, process of modernization
through films and conflict among the womenfolk stand as the major causes of
disintegration of the Joint family.
In such cases where the parents are dead, the eldest
brother of the sibling takes up the authority. But now cases like these are few
and far between. The younger brother has started suspecting the very intention
of the elder brother or the eldest brother as the case may be, on the ground
that he might appropriate the resources and the landed property to his
advantage. When two or three brothers live together it generally results in the
partition of the property and the house. Due to infiltration of the outsiders
(Baji), the harmony of the family and of the village of the Tharus has been completely
disturbed and disrupted.
Earlier there were some
sub-castes of the Tharus who did not invite Brahmin at any function. Guro(village
priest) was earlier a very respectable person in the village and a Brhamin did
not command respect in this community. The Tharus used to call a Brahmin by
derogatory term “Re Babhanava”. But
now the situation is changing. Brahmins are being respected and they are being
invited to perform marriage ceremony or puja. After the formation of the Tharu
Sangh, it has been decided that all the sub-castes will invite Brahmin at every
ceremony and he alone will solemnize marriage. Feeling of untouchability was
there but it never prevailed in its cruel or ugly form. Now- a – days social
distance has shortened and there is good deal of interaction at every front but
interdining is not encouraged.
There is one
very remarkable specialty found in the Tharu society. A friend enjoys a higher and more
esteemed position than their kith and kin.
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| Image (C) Dr Ajay Kumar (Ojha) |
But today this bond is breaking. Simple and innocent Tharus
have been deceived and exploited in the name of friendship by the non-Tharus.
Even their women have become prey to these people. The Tharu is now scared of
making friendship.
Dominant position of the Tharu women is rooted in the culture of the Tharu society. The
position of women in the Tharu society is not that of a family drudge as one
may find in the societies of the Bajis. They have considerable freedom and
wield great influence in the domestic sphere. Customs and conventions of the
Tharu society have not been properly understood, they have been misconceived,
misrepresented and misinterpreted. Customs are the integral part of the
Tharu culture and here lies the reason for their dominant role in the society.
But now we can perceive some changes taking place in the status of women of
Tharu society. Interaction with the Bajis has mainly been responsible for the
downgrading the status of Tharu women. Since now the Tharus have started
looking for educated and settled groom for their girl, earlier existing process
of marriage negotiation has completely got reversed.
Institution of Lagania Baba
is on wane and now brideside has to take initiative and look out for the groom.
Bride price is now being replaced by the demand of dowry. Pomp and show,
exhibition of wealth is becoming status symbol. Though Tharu Sangh has
prohibited the menace of dowry, which is eating into the vitals of Tharu
society and polluting its unique and matchless culture, some neo-rich of the area
refuse to oblige. Now some of the families who have become a little affluent
and their status enhanced due to various factors like getting a good job or
becoming politically or otherwise powerful do not allow their women to go
outside the home. Now some of the young Tharus , who have come to stay in the
village after getting some education from outside Tharuhat, have begun
dictating terms on their wives. This attitude of theirs has developed during
their interaction with the Bajis while attending a school or college or by
watching Hindi films. It would be unfortunate, if society like that of Tharus
allow downgrading the status of women in their society. Dominant position of
the women, good high status of women is the hallmark of the Tharu society of
West Champaran and it should be preserved at all costs.
With
the influence of the non-Tharus, specially, the Hindus, the Hindu culture is
slowly influencing the religious domain of the Tharus of West Champaran. They
flock to fairs in thousands to worship the Hindu gods, such as Lord Shiva and
mythical hero Rama. Their folk songs are woven around the stories of Ramayana
and Mahabharata. Shivratri is celebrated with immense fervor and enthusiasm.
Most of the Tharus go to Shiv Mandir on
the occasion of Shivratri. Though there is an absence of the idea of a definite
pantheon of the Tharus as such, it is clear that there is a tendency growing
among them to absorb the deities of Hindu religion on a large scale and to
respect their Rishis and Saints. However, in time to come, this process of
assimilation is to some extent weakening their faith in their old tribal
religion - spiritism or animism.
There
was predominant impact of Muslim culture on all aspects of the life of the
Tharus. It is traced even before the British period. Keeping of Tazia and
worshipping it, had become a cultural aspect of the Tharu society of West
Champaran. But the Tharus are scared of the Muslims because of their tyrannical
nature, as some of the Tharus of the area report. They practiced theft,
dacoity, kidnapping, snatching and other various kinds of anti-social
activities. The Tharus started
distancing themselves from the Muslims due to their bad activities. Even today
the Tharus are scared of the Muslims. Due to the acts of some people of the
community the whole community has been defamed. The Muslims have
also occupied and established many farms in the region.
Earlier there was a sub-caste of the Tharu called Kanfatta
Yogi. Dead was given Samadhi among them. There was no shradha karma or
shaving of the head. But now all the sub-castes practice the same rituals at the time of
death of a Tharu. Rituals associated with the death of a person resemble that
of the neighbouring Hindus.
Tharu society is a
superstition–ridden society. This has brought many disadvantages to the village
or community. Whenever anybody is killed or anything is stolen, some fictitious
character like Choraha Bhut is held responsible and thus real culprit relapses
into background. Bajis too, might have exploited this belief prevalent in the
Tharu society to their advantage. But now such incidents are becoming things of
the past thanks to the selfless and tireless effort of some of the aware people
of the Tharu community who are fearlessly fighting against the ills of their society.
The
Tharus of West Champaran owned a large amount of land. Land was not a problem
for them. They were having very large joint families even then they led their
lives very smoothly and satisfactorily. Process of decrease in their
landholding started even before Independence but it was slow. After
Independence, land alienation process became very fast. It is due to the fast
process of land alienation that we find large number of big farms prospering in
the Tharuhat.
Although the infiltration of the non-Tharus has always
been there but it caught momentum since Independence. With the arrival of many
government officials, including forest and police a large number of Bajis
started making inroads in the Tharuhat. Simplicity and innocence of the Tharus
became the vulnerable point to be exploited by the outsiders. These non-Tharus
who are called Bajis by the Tharus played all sorts of tricks for grabbing the
land of the Tharus. The Tharus have been reportedly tortured, physically and
mentally, and also
beaten up. Sometimes even beaten to death to create fear among them. They are
even given the threat of court. Police officers of the locality also use to
favour the powerful and influential Bajis who have great networks. Simple,
innocent and even uneducated Tharus remain helpless.
But one thing is becoming crystal clear. Slowly but surely
the Tharus are becoming conscious and aware of their rights. They have now at
least begun to fight for their cause and raise their voice against any
injustice meted out to them. It has been observed that where the Tharus have
stood up, gathered courage and fought they have won their case. This good and
positive trend appears to be very slow and negligible.
Oppression
of the Tharus is confounded by the fact that corrupt minor officials frustrate
the intention of the government. They fail to carry out the clear-cut
instructions of the superior officers. Partiality of the local police officers
is also very much evident who almost invariably side with the local powerful
non- Tharus.
We cannot find a village in the Tharuhat, which is
populated by Baji and the Tharus living there. That is why there are instances where the Tharus of a
village have to leave their own village when they have been outnumbered by
non-Tharus or Baji. These uprooted Tharus have settled somewhere else under
compulsion. But non – Tharus are living in a Tharu village and even settling there
without any problem or difficulty. The Tharuhat land is supposed to be
very fertile even more than that of Punjab and these people have an eye on the
land of the Tharus. In this way most of them have been able to develop
their farm by slowly and gradually grabbing the land of the Tharus by hook or
by crook.
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| Image (C) Dr Ajay Kumar (Ojha) |
Many farms have cropped up in the Tharuhat area.
Looking at the large number of farms, the Tharuhat of West Champaran has come
to be known as ‘Land of Farms’. Most
of the farms are the result of the gradual but steady alienation of the land of
the Tharus on a large scale by the cruel, cunning, selfish and so called
“cultured” non-Tharus (Bajis in local parlance) who have infiltrated into the
Tharuhat for new and easily available pastures. Institution of Sarkar
which is a kind of parallel government is neo-colonization of the Tharus. This
has led to a situation in which the Tharus have virtually become the slave of
the farm malik or Sarkar. Farm is also known as kachahari (court).
Kachahari is named after the name of the owner of the farm who acts like a ‘magistrate’
and enjoys ‘the power of justice’. Poor Tharus thrown off from their
own land, are now in the trap of and at the mercy of farm owner who invariably
intimidates and terrorizes them so that they may not muster courage to raise
any voice or revolt. So much is the intensity of terror that the Tharus dare
not speak anything against the might of Sarkar. The Kachahari has become a very
powerful institution and so pervading is the influence among the Tharus that
they have become very scared of raising any voice against the highhandedness
and atrocities of the farm might. The Tharus who were once upon a time leading
a very peaceful and prosperous life and were the owner of sufficient land have
become landless; have become alien in their own homeland. They have become
paupers. The process of pasturization of the Tharuhat region has led to
pauperization of the Tharus.
Over a
period of time the terror of farm malik has started decreasing but it is still
prevalent. There appears to be a change in the culture of the farms and also
the attitude of the Tharus towards the owners of the farms. Ray of awareness is
very much visible upon their faces and scare of Sarkar and Kachahari is melting
away but definitely no substantial change so as to alter the existing social
structure.
Though the
main occupation of the Tharus has been agriculture as they owned vast stretches
of land, mostly afforested near Someswar hills. There was no dearth of labour as it was easily available
in the big joint family. But now the situation has changed. Self-sufficient Tharu
family has been disintegrated due to various reasons and their dependence on
agriculture has been eroded. Members of the most of the Tharu families are
turning into landless labourers.This is really a disturbing trend as their
economy in shambles. They have been alienated from their land and there is no
alternative source of employment. Bajis, in the form of big farms, have
devoured much of their land. Forest based industries would have been very
advantageous for them but due to apathy from the government and policy makers
no initiative appears to have been taken so far. The Tharus still shirk from
establishing any business because of technical and procedural complexities
associated with it. There are a few educated youths in the village but there
are no employment opportunities available in the Tharuhat and they do not wish
to leave their village. Non – inclusion of the Tharus of West Champaran in the
Schedule of constitution for over more than five decades has substantially
contributed to their pitiable and deplorable condition.
Alienation of the land
of the Tharus and their exploitation from various sections have accelerated the
process of pauperization and with this emerges the need to take loan for making
both ends meet. Tharus avoid taking loan from cooperative
banks because of the clumsy and complex procedure. Illiterate Tharus are scared
of the process and more so the employees of Cooperative Banks demand bribe for
giving loan. They are more comfortable with the system of Mahajan or Panchania
Baba as the loan is easily available through known persons. But none of
these systems has been helpful in ameliorating the condition of the poor
Tharus. The lives of the Tharus have become all the more miserable because of
the village loan-sharks like Mahajans or Panchania Babas who offer loans at high
interest rates. However, banks are not interested in giving loans to poor
people and they consider the poor to be bad borrowers.
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| Image (C) Dr Ajay Kumar (Ojha) |
The Tharus of
West Champaran like other tribes are attached to their own land, own culture
and own community. They do not go outside of their locale. But now they have
started moving out of their village and Tharuhat(Once infested by Dacoits &
called as “Mini Chambal”) in the
search of employment forced by circumstances since their survival itself is at
stake. Landholdings has decreased due to alienation of land by the non-Tharus
and thus making most of them landless labour. There is lack of rural employment
opportunities. Tribal youth are even being implicated in false cases by the
police. Terror of Lal Salam is troubling them and the Tharuhat has
become vulnerable to Maoists influence due to proximity and porousness of
Indo-Nepal border. Above all, this area has now been directly connected through
rail with almost all parts of the country and thus making it easy for the
Tharus to move out. Centripetal forces, which have integrated the Tharus of West Champaran
and attached them to their soil for ages, are weakening or disintegrating due
to various obvious reasons and centrifugal forces are compelling them to
move
out of the area for rojgar(employment) and survival. Thus it can be
perceived that migration and movement of the Tharus of West Champaran have
started, though the pace may be slow and with this the process of change in
their behaviour, outlook attitude, and also conditions of living.
After the influx of non- Tharus the institution of Gumasta
also started weakening. Outside interference and support led to slow but sure
disintegration of the age old system. Emergence of a number of farms brought
along with a different system altogether for settling of disputes in the Tharu
society. Each farm began to function, nay still functions as kachaheri
(court) where most of the disputes get decided. Cohesiveness of the Tharu samaj
got disturbed and the age old traditional system of settling their disputes
among themselves without the interference of outsiders, that too peacefully and
amicably, got a severe jolt. The prestige of Gumasta is declining and
new panchayat system introduced by the government is playing a leading role.
The head of Gram Panchayat earlier used to give some respect to Gumasta of the
village and consult the Gumasta of different villages when faced with any
problem or difficulty. Gumasta’s help and assistance was sought usually while
solving any problem or introducing any developmental project. But these days
the role of Gumasta has weakened to a great extent. No one goes to Gumasta for
any consultation and advice. He is now not held in high esteem, regard or
respect. During election also his role has become negligible. May be somewhere
in some village where the Tharus are more organized and united and are a
cohesive unit , the office and esteem of Gumasta, the age old institution of
the Tharus of West Champaran, have remained unaffected , undiluted and
unchanged.
Inclusion of
the Tharus of West Champaran in the list of Scheduled tribes would have led to
more development , more attention by the government, more attention by press
and media, more literacy , more awareness of their rights , more opening of the
area to the outer world. But any move in this direction has been opposed by
non-Tharus including higher castes, powerful backward castes, even Muslims.
They are all having farms in the Tharuhat. But effort for inclusion did not die
down. The Tharus slowly and gradually started thinking about themselves, about
their welfare and about their identity. They did not lose heart and they
established Tharu Kalyan Sangh.This was done not only with the
objective of finding out their roots but also for removing the social evils
from their samaj and most importantly
bringing the Tharus on one platform. They started interacting with each other
at regular intervals.
Is not it the irony of
the situation that in fifties when there was a move to include the Tharus in
the list of Scheduled Tribe it was opposed on the ground that since they are
not educated they would not be able to manage their constituency? But this
logic was not applied in the case of other tribes of India when they were being
included in the list of Scheduled Tribe. Not even in the case of the Tharus of
Uttar Pradesh who belong to the same community as that of West Champaran.
Such
developments in the Tharuhat clearly demystify the prevailing situation that
every thing looks good, every thing is natural, every thing is without any
disturbance, everything is proper, and everything is without injustice and
exploitation. But when outer lid is removed, when outer surface is peeled off,
when one goes deep into the social order and reality, the real, actual
situation is witnessed.
It is purely
the cheapest and the cruelest kind of manipulation designed by the so called
educated, cultured and advance people who claim themselves to be successful
politicians and who boast of doing public service in the Parliament or the
Legislative Assembly. Just to serve their own petty interest all the groups who
have the common objective to exploit the Tharuhat and the simple, peace-loving
people, came together and opposed the inclusion of the Tharus of West Champaran
in the list of Scheduled Tribes.
Due to the cheap politics lives of
lakhs of Tharus have become hell. Most of them have become homeless, shelter-less
and landless on their own land. But their fight and struggle for being given
Scheduled Tribe status continued in a peaceful manner perhaps taking the
example of Mahatma Gandhi who fought for the just causes of Indigo Planters on
the same land against the unjust and
barbaric rule of the British with his weapon of satyagraha and non- violence .
Unjust and barbaric rule still continues but this time the rulers are not the
foreigners but the people from their own country, own state, own district nay
own locality. The Tharus of West Champaran , has become the major tribe of
Bihar after carving out of Jharkhand and after continuous peaceful struggle
this tribe got the Scheduled Tribe status in 2003.
Now what does “civilized” mean? Does it mean exploitation
of the weak by the powerful? Does it mean doing inhuman thing and justify it
also in one’s favour? Does it give the powerful right to suppress and oppress
the weak? Perhaps yes. This appears to be true at the micro level as well as
macro level. Non-Tharus settling in the Tharuhat area and now owner of big
farms call the simple and gentle Tharus as Bagad /Murkh ie. fool just because
they are having transparent personality , just because they are having
humanitarian outlook, just because they
are peace-loving community. At the Macro level we can
see America(China in the case of Tibet and now Doklam Bhutan) behaving like a thanedar, doing moral
policing on the country like Iraq and even attacking the country and justifying
its action. Just because America is powerful it can do anything and can get
away with it, just because China is powerful it can encroach the territory of any vulnerable country and get away with it.
Whether
at Macro level or Micro level the dictum “MIGHT IS RIGHT” has been true in the
past, is true in thepresent and will continue
to be true in the future also and true meaning and spirit of “Civilized” and
“Cultured” has always lost its significance under the influence of “MIGHT IS RIGHT”.
Can we be sanguine that one day true meaning and spirit of the these two words
be achieved? This is a question which will remain a question only with,
possibly nay definitely, “no answer”.
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| Image (C) Dr Ajay Kumar (Ojha) |
REFERENCES
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Communitization” YOJANA: A
Development Monthly: December, 74-75
2006. “Tharus
of West Champaran: A Tribe Unhighlighted.” YOJANA:
A Development Monthly: August, 88-90
2010. Pattern of Social Change among the Tharus of
West Champaran in Bihar. PhD Thesis: JNU
2. Kannan, N. 2008. Rural Development and Social Change. Delhi: Abhijeet Publication.
3. Longkumer,J. 2009.Change and Continuity in Tribal Villages: A Sociological Study. New
Delhi: Akansha
7. Pathak,Avijit. 2006. Modernity, Globalization and Identity: Towards a Reflexive Quest. New Delhi: Aakar Books
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Indian Social Structure and Change. New Delhi: Rawat Publications
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The Tharu Sanskriti
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Press
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(West Champaran): Pragnya Parijat Prakashan
